The Taft Collection of Rare Chinese Porcelains
This was book originally Published in 1904 of an outstanding collection of Chinese porcelains from the Taft family of Cincinnati Ohio. The Taft collection of rare Chinese porcelains consists primarily of blue and white, blanc de chine, famile verte and monochrome examples dating to the Kangxi period. Additionally the volume contains some superb examples from the Yongzheng and Qianlong period. In total are over 110 illustrated examples.
At the end of the Taft collection of rare Chinese porcelains in the back of the book has is an extensive and useful glossary of terminology used within the book.
A CATALOGUE OF CHINESE PORCELAINS COLLECTED By
MR. AND MRS. CHARLES P. TAFT
CINCINNATI, OHIO
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
COMPILED AND DESCRIBED BY
JOHN GETZ
NEW YORK
PRIVATELY PRINTED
MCMIV
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PREFACE
THE private Collection of Chinese Porcelains formed by Mr. and Mrs. Charles P. Taft of Cincinnati, described and illustrated in the following pages, contains uniformly important specimens as well as interesting and noteworthy groups that exemplify the high technical skill attained during the early periods of the ceramic art in China, and which are held in great esteem by all connoisseurs to-day. Taft Collection of Rare Chinese Porcelains was in it's day one of the finest of its kind in the United States.
Covering so many centuries in the history of this art, these objects in porcelain, by their surpassing qualities and preeminence, fairly indicate that the transcendent success of their kind, whether owned in private or museum aggregations, contributed largely to the glory of those past epochs to which they are ascribed by native and other authorities.
The creations of Chinese ceramists justly enjoy universal celebrity and favor, their singular beauty and exquisite richness making them harmonious adjuncts to tasteful and esthetic surroundings the world over. Decorative applicability, together with a subtle charm of refinement, is always gratifying ; and we know that such objects won the enthusiastic admiration of kings and emperors, in Europe as in the far East.
A former French minister to the Imperial court at Pekin, and a keen connoisseur as well as collector, once said to the writer, "There are porcelains and porcelains, as there are diamonds and diamonds"; the inference is so apt and to the point, that its repetition here may be pardonable.
The subtlety of rare old porcelain, which after the lapse of centuries shows no loss of color or sign of decay, its mature appearance combined with innate freshness, its brilliancy and translucency of glazes, and its symmetry and dignity of form, whether invested with a solid color or a cleverly balanced distribution of design, contribute each in its own way to the inimitable character of those objects in fired kaolinic clay.
The taste for Oriental porcelains reached Europe early in the seventeenth century, but until recent years the real gems in porcelain remained utterly unknown to the Western world. Only at rare intervals a few pieces which showed the native goat began to appear, and they, indeed, proved a revelation in America as well as in Europe; such isolated apparitions in porcelain, coming from time to time, staggered amateurs by their beauty, and, it may be also said, by their unheard-of values.
It has taken the Western world over a century to pass beyond the anteroom of this captivating art in China, and to reach the cabinets of the prized, the ne plus ultra treasures owned by mandarins or by Manchu princes of the Celestial Empire. These precious objects have excited the interest of collectors the world over, but it may be safely stated that not before the great Tai-ping rebellion were such examples in porcelainseen outside of China.
These fragile products, these fascinating and unobtrusive objects of art, have been destined to wander far, and from country to country, from mansion to mansion, always inspiring new delight, affording a field for the display of cultivated taste, and furnishing a stimulating pastime, as well as contributing by their presence to a quiet dignity of surroundings. Such are the real attributes of rare Chinese porcelains.
The acknowledgments of the compiler are due to Mr. B. Duveen for his collaboration and interest in this work.
Blue And White Chinese Porcelain
ALTHOUGH no mention is made of painting or decoration in blue before the Yuan dynasty (notable for " Lin-ch'uan-yao " and " Nan-teng-yao "), yet blue was from the earliest times one of the most favored colors. We may note that in the Chin dynasty (266-419) blue porcelain (or pottery) was called " Fiao-tz'u," said by Dr. Bushell to resemble a certain pale-blue shade of silk.BLUE AND WHITE
In the Tang dynasty this blue was called the "color of the distant hills" ; in the posterior Chou dynasty (954-959), the " blue of the sky after rain." In another period it was called the " prohibited color," because it was reserved for the Emperor or the palace, and not to be seen by the common people. Under the Sung dynasty (960-1279), although other colors were also used, the famous porcelain of Ju-chou was of a pale-blue glaze. The finest Imperial porcelain of this epoch was a sort of peacock-blue, and the crackled " Ko-yao," although mostly celadon, contained some specimens of a bluish tinge like the celebrated monochrome porcelains of Lung-ch'ilan.
As no reference is made in early Chinese literature to blue decoration, Mr. Monkhouse aptly concluded, in his critical notes, that " blue and white, for practical purposes (that is, for a collector), commenced with the Ming dynasty " ; and this refers especially to Wan-li, Hsiian-te, Cheng-te, and Chia-ching, although later, in the Ch'eng-hua period, the foreign blue failing, the Chinese used their native blue, prepared from cobaltiferous ore of manganese. However, during the K'ang-hsi period it may be said that, with the exception of the fine " Mohammedan blue " (" Su-ma-ni" or " Su-ni-po"), there is no tint of cobalt which cannot be found. While the Ming blue is boldly painted and dark, and also distinguishable by more massive forms, the later blue and white porcelain is finer in paste and technical perfection, and possesses a gradation and palpitating quality of color which particularly gives it a charm that one may miss in older types.A CATALOGUE OF
The blue of cobalt differed in its shades at different periods in China, as appears by statistics; and it requires an acute color sense to define the niceties and distinctions of one kind from another, without taking into account the different pastes or glazing as well as forms. Each period has varied certain shapes, and this variation, however slight, is sufficient for the Western connoisseur to place the provenance of an object in accordance.
Taft Collection of Rare Chinese Porcelains
The first section begins with a fine selection of blue and white porcelains all dating from the Kangxi Period.
Covered Confection Bowl, blue and white, of globular shape and fine hard-paste porcelain, decorated in arabesque design involving four large lotus flowers, between scrolled stems, painted in dark blue under a translucent glaze.
The shoulder is encircled by a small chevron fret band of a slightly lighter shade. The cover sustains a design similar to that of the bowl, and is tipped with a small grotesque " dog Fo."
The underneath foot bears a leaf-mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 5 inches. Diameter, 37,8 inches.
Small Jar, blue and white, slender ovoid form, fine hard-textured porcelain, with low flat cover.
The motive of the decoration, which is in brilliant blue under a perfect glaze, consists in conventionalized " feather " or fern scrolls, involving small floral buds with a double lancet-shape interior : a symbolic design of ancient form found only on small objects of good quality.
The small cover sustains a similar design.
The foot bears a leaf-mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Small Jar, blue and white, slender ovoid form, fine hard-textured porcelain, with low flat cover.
The motive of the decoration, which is in brilliant blue under a perfect glaze, consists in conventionalized " feather " or fern scrolls, involving small floral buds with a double lancet-shape interior : a symbolic design of ancient form found only on small objects of good quality.
The small cover sustains a similar design.
The foot bears a leaf-mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 6 inches. Diameter, 3 inches.
Small Jar, blue and white, slender ovoid form, fine hard-textured porcelain, without cover.
The motive of the decoration, which is in brilliant blue under a perfect glaze, consists in conventionalized " feather" or fern scrolls, involving small floral buds with a double lancet-shape interior : a symbolic design of ancient form found only on small objects of good quality.
The foot bears a leaf-mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 53/8 inches. Diameter, 3 inches.
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Pair of Tall Beakers, with the so-called "Lange-lysen pattern; cornet form, with a trumpet-like neck.
Kangxi Porcelain Garniture Set
The bodies of these beakers are uniformly decorated in brilliant shades of blue upon a white paste of translucent and pure texture, the decoration varying only in a few details horn that of the companion pieces: i.e., the slightly raised and blue-outlined lotus-petal panels are here arranged in four tiers or rows; the largest and the smallest of these surround the neck, another row fills the central body, and the lower section is encircled in a like manner.
The uppermost and larger tier of panels, as in the foregoing vase, presents a richly attired lady accompanied by a child, whom she alternately holds in her arms or has by her side on a veranda, showing a balustrade and other accessories.
The second row of panels sustains alternately a young lady engaged in practising on a guitar or a flute and the jardinieres of flowers.
On the third line of panels the figure is shown in graceful poses of a dance with cymbal accompaniment, alternating also with the flowering plants ; while in the fourth and lowest row, a figure of a young lady is presented caressing birds and a rabbit ; the accessories generally being balustrades and tables or stands.
The field over the panels, in the form of spandrels, is slightly depressed and filled with floral sprays; two bands (one in lozenge pattern and the second chevron-fretted) encircle the globular center of body; and a small "herring-bone"-fret is also shown under the top rim, finishing a highly pleasing decoration in deep blue under glaze.
Each specimen bears a leaf-mark with double ring in blue.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 171/8 inches.
Diameter at top, 81/16 inches.
Pair of Tall Jar-shaped Vases, with covers, of the so-called " Lange-lysen type, and of similar form to the center piece.
These vases are uniformly decorated in brilliant shades of blue upon a white ground of fine quality and even texture; the design, which is symmetrical and equally disposed over the surface, presents three tiers of lotus-petal panels, that are slightly raised and encircle the body, each sustaining its own design, edged with blue lines.
The upper row of large panels displays a lady in gracefully flowing attire, daintily occupied with flowers and dancing;' the figure appears on each panel against a background strewn with flowers, and the raison crefre may be found in the middle row of panels, representing warriors, noble horsemen, and hunting scenery.
The third and lowest row of panels show, alternately, a lady in graceful pose or slow dance with tiny fans, and the conventional flower-pots with their stands.
The depressed field above the panels, surrounding the shoulder and the neck, is filled in with floral sprays and encircled by a "herring-bone"-fret band.
The low bell-shaped covers have a blue-tipped knob, and are invested with an alternate figure and flower-pot decoration similar to the subjects on lower row of panels. The paste and the quality of the cobalt-blue exemplify the highest type of their class.
Each foot bears the six character-marks (apocryphal) of Ch'eng-hua (1465-1487), dynasty of Ming.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 191/2 inches. Diameter, 8'/2 inches.
'The arrangement of flowers centuries ago was considered an accomplishment for a lady of rank, and is an art of Chinese origin.
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Tall Blue and White Kangxi Vase, cylindrical form with rounded shoulder and attenuated neck ; so-called dub shape, of fine contour.
Tall Blue and White Kangxi Vase
Hard white-textured and semi-egg-shell porcelain, of rare purity, displaying under glaze painting of remarkable vitality and in rare deep cobalt.
The spirited warrior subject, carried around vase, represents an episode' involving heroes of the wars between "the Three Kingdoms." Ch'ou Yiin was a famous retainer of Liu Pei (afterward King of Shuh). The latter was at one time (195 A. D.) defeated by Ts'ao-Ts'ao; and Ch'ou Yiin, in rescuing an infant son of his chief, was closely pursued by one of the rival leaders, when suddenly a great chasm yawned before him. Urging his horse (vide escaping horseman), he cleared the chasm and escaped. The leader of Ts'ao referred to is shown on a dappled horse, followed by a standard-bearer with several swordsmen at his side.
The third horseman, approaching from behind rocks, is another famous hero, Kuan Yii, of the period, distinguished by his burly height and stem mien, seen holding aloft a long, ancient weapon, and rushing to the aid of his companion in arms, Ch'ou Yiin.
The accessories of landscape include a high silicic peak, water and trees; the roof of a partly visible royal pavilion, suggesting the proximity of Liu Pei's domains.
The white tubular neck is encircled by the usual ring-borders, key-fretted and curled-fungus design, with a line of small dots below.
The fine white foot is without mark.
The drawing is characterized by technical mastery and power of expressing action. Its provenance may easily be set at the close of the seventeenth century, when the cobalt-blue was at its best.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 18' a inches. Diameter, 8 inches.
'From the celebrated historical novel " San-kua-chih," or "Records of the Three Kingdoms."
This is the most popular work of its kind in China, and details the triangular contest for the throne waged by Liu Pei, assisted by Ch'ou Ytin, Chang Fei, and Kuan Yii, against Ts'ao-Ts'ao,
after his secession from Liu Pei, and the Siian family, which resulted in the partition of the empire among the house of Han of Szechuen and those of Wu and of Wei, founded respectively by Liu-swan-t6 and Ts'ao Meng-te
Tall Blue and White Kangxi Period Vase, club-shaped, companion to the preceding: fine-textured paste of rare pellucid quality, displaying the same brilliant deep-blue painting, under an equally perfect glazing.
The pictorial subject, carried around the vase, shows a garden terrace. The central figure is a lady of high rank, surrounded by attendants, receiving an elderly messenger, who is kneeling ; one of the attendants at her side holds a long tablet, and another behind bears a tall fan of state. The drooping standard is held by a young man, while two others, bearing banners, suggest the arrival (or departure) of some accredited person or official.
The accessories include a long table with vases (one holds the two symbolical feathers and coral stick), a garden seat, and a large, spiral-bordered screen, which forms the background, helped by large palm trees and other plants.
The picture, composed with decorative skill, is also admirably rendered in the varying tints of the rare cobalt-blue, and exactly corresponds with its companion in this particular.
The neck sustains the fretted and other ring-bands, with dots, as in the foregoing. The foot is also unmarked, and shows the white, perfect porcelain that amateurs praise so much.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 18', inches. Diameter, 8 inches.
Tall Blue and White Kangxi Vase, of graceful baluster form : massive hard textured porcelain, decorated in very deep cobalt-blue, under the glaze, in the so-called "tasseled" design.
The motive shows a series of about eleven bands or borders, one above the other; the principal one on lower section simulates fringed tassels; a second border of similar design invests the neck, and below each of these are floral arabesque bands; while the base and shoulder sustain blue scalloped borders with outlines of separation in white palmation form.
The neck also sustains two such broad borders, one of which connects at shoulder with two small bands (in chevron and scalloped patterns), and the second is near the rim, where it is finished by a small band of chevron fret; the inside is similarly treated, with a small band at the edge.
The under foot is unglazed, and without a mark; its paste and color suggest early K'ang-hsi, while the form and motive are those of an earlier period.
Height, l77.8 inches. Diameter, 75,8 inches.
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Blue and White Tea-pot, globular form, with small handle and spout : fine-textured hard-paste porcelain.
The surface is uniformly covered with a brilliant blue ground, and shows a lotus arabesque design, in white reserve, involving a naked boy on each side, among the scrolled stems .1
A chevron fret borders the rim, and the cover is decorated to match, and carries a
fine white arabesque motive with two shades of blue, and also tipped by a button. The handle and spout show the glazed white paste with simple decoration.
Kangxi Blue and White Tea-pots and Vases
The foot underneath bears a blue ring with a spherical object with ribbons, symbol
of " the Pearl " (chin or chu).
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 4 inches. Diameter, 4 inches.
Blue and White Tea-pot, globular form, with small handle and spout : fine-textured hard-paste porcelain.
Blue and White Tea-pot (ancient wine-vessel), of tall ovoid form, with attenuated neck and bell-shaped cover, the handle and spout of hard porcelain twisted to represent cords.
The surface of the body shows slightly relieved white network, with diamond-shaped panels, painted in deep blue, under the glaze, including a small floral spray in white reserve.
The shoulder and neck are uniformly decorated in floral arabesque design, and a similar flowered border finishes the base.
The cover sustains an arabesque motive divided by lines into panels, and is tipped by a molded fruit knob.
Under foot without mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 61/2 inches. Diameter, 4 inches.
Blue and White Tea-pot (ancient wine-vessel), of tall ovoid form, with attenuated neck and bell-shaped cover, the handle and spout of hard porcelain twisted to represent cords.
The surface of the body shows slightly relieved white network, with diamond-shaped panels, painted in deep blue, under the glaze, including a small floral spray in white reserve.
The shoulder and neck are uniformly decorated in floral arabesque design, and a similar flowered border finishes the base.
The cover sustains an arabesque motive divided by lines into panels, and is tipped by a molded fruit knob.
Under foot without mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 61/2 inches. Diameter, 4 inches.
Blue and White Tea-pot, melon-shaped, with bamboo-formed handle and spout : hard-paste porcelain of fine white texture.
The six grooved and outlined panels are each separately decorated with varying floral plants in jardinieres with stands.
The small cover is topped by a small button, and is decorated to match motive below. The foot is without mark.
Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 4'/., inches. Diameter, 4 inches.
Pair of Small Bottles, blue and white, with compressed body and long cylindrical neck, of hard-paste porcelain.
Decorated in a lotus-flower arabesque motive, boldly rendered in dark blue, under the glaze, with stems arranged in conventional form of ornament, characteristic of early periods.
Long conventional lotus leaves surround the neck from the shoulder, and a small series of leaves encircle the upper part near the rim, that is finished by a chevron fret border.
The base is surrounded by a series of dots arranged in groups on the white body. Era of K'ang-hsi (1662-1722).
Height, 6Y2 inches. Diameter, 31:4 inches.
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Chinese GLOSSARY Terms
Many of the technical terms are explained in other parts of this book.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS, the four (of the Chinese scholar), music, chess, calligraphy, and painting, often represented on porcelain.
AMITABHA, the most popular Buddha, both in China and Japan, dating from the third century of our era (it is only since the fifth century that he has been placed in the foreground in China). Arnitabha is supposed to preside with Kwan-yin over the Paradise in the West, where the good may enjoy long ages of rest. See S'akya-muni.
ARHATS (a Sanskrit term meaning " worthy " or "deserving "), the immediate disciples of Buddha. The Chinese increased their number from sixteen to eighteen (Lohan) during the Tang dynasty. The last two enrolled are constantly represented apart from the others, their attributes being the tiger and dragon. The Arhat is the perfect Arya, attained only by passing through the different degrees of sainthood, and implies the possession of supernatural powers.
ARMORIAL PORCELAIN: during the period of Kiang-hsi and, later, under Yung-cheng and Chien-lung, it became customary for nobles and wealthy individuals in Europe to order porcelains made in China bearing their family arms. Among these may be found the arms of distinguished families of England and France and the provinces of the Netherlands.
AUBERGINE, a purple or plum-colored glazing derived from the oxide of manganese: aptly named by the French. Its tint resembles the rind of an egg-plant.
BAMBOO (" Chu ") is an emblem of longevity (owing to its durability) frequently depicted on porcelain. The bamboo grove was the resort for scholars in former times.
BATS are constantly depicted on porcelain. Looked upon as of good omen, when five bats (" Wu fu ") are grouped together it signifies the five blessings, longevity, riches, love of virtue, serenity, and an end crowning life; the Chinese character for " bat " and "happiness" having the same pronunciation.
BISCUIT is the product of unglazed paste of porcelain which has been baked in a kiln.
BLANC DE CHINE, white-glazed porcelain without a colored decoration or painting. BOCCARO WARE : a name applied to red or brown Chinese pottery, which may be decorated in enamel colors or lacquer. On the most ancient specimens the surface shows a patinated effect like old bronze.
BODY, OR PASTE, the porcelain substance of which an object is made. See Paste.
BROCADED PATTERN, a term applied where the ground or field is covered with an all-over design in arabesques, or with flowers and foliage in two or more colors, copied sometimes from rich textile motives.
BUDDHISM, called in China the religion of " Fit," was introduced into that country during the first century A.D. Its favorable reception was due largely to its tenets, which allowed the incorporation of strange deities. The first " &lira " was translated into Chinese in the year A.D. 67, during the time of the later or Eastern Han dynasty, by Kas'yapa Matanga, a disciple of Salcyamuni, who entered China with Han Ming-Cs embassy on its return from Bada6han. By its means the Buddhist doctrines first became known in China. Such translations from the Sanskrit form the earliest and still continue to be the most important part of Chinese Buddhistic literature and art. During the first eight centuries of the existence of Buddhism in China. the circle of S'akyamuni's disciples (Arhats) comprised the same number as in India (sixteen), which was increased in the ninth century A.D. by the enrollment of two additional disciples to its present complement.
BURGAUTEE, lacquered Chinese porcelain : generally applied to a black-lacquered ground-color elaborately inlaid with mother-of-pearl and plates of silver or gold leaf, or landscapes with small figures; produced under K'ang-hsi.
BUTTERFLY PATTERN, a mode of embellishment in which this insect appears. The finest type, as well as the rarest, was produced during the era of K'ang-hsi, and belongs to the " fa-mille-verte " variety. Butterflies (" Hu-tieh ") are often employed in decoration as a sign of conjugal felicity, and, in fact, the butterfly may be called the Chinese Cupid.
CELADON (designated by the Chinese as " Ch'ing "), a pale- or sea-green glaze of rather wide range in tones, and of varying degrees of transparency. The word" celadon " was first used to designate the bluish- or greenish-gray costumes worn on the stage by shepherds, and came into vogue during I 6 12, when the pastoral romance " L'Astree " was brought out by Honore aide, " Celadon " being the name of the hero, who first appeared in such neutral green cloths, so that this color was named after him, and became fashionable. Chinese porcelain soon thereafter appeared in Europe, and, being glazed in a light green, this name was fixed upon it directly ; but in Persia and some other Eastern countries celadon ware was long known under the name of " Martalpani."
CH'-LIN. See Ky-lin.
CHING-Te-CIEN (Pekinese). See King-te-chen.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, an emblem of autumn and symbol of joviality. This flower is valued for its variety and richness of color.
CITRON FRUIT. See Hand of Buddha.
CRACKLE, a term applied to pieces in which the glaze exhibits a crackled effect running over the surface like broken ice, obtained by preparing the respective proportions of steatite, silica, and alumina in the composition of the glaze ; in this manner the crackle can be produced in various
sizes at will. The large and more irregular crackle on old specimens is called " crab claws," and the smallest " fish-spawn " or "shad roe." The fine examples of dark turquoise usually have this latter characteristic.
The oldest crackle ware dates back to the most remote periods, antedating that in which porcelain was produced by many centuries. The type called in China " Mi-se," of a pale ca f e-agr-tait color, is probably older than celadon crackle. Another type of crackle was called " Tsui-khi-yao," and was produced in the
thirteenth century. In some examples the
crackled glaze is a striking part of the embellishment, especially when the network of the cracks is filled with a red or black coloring; the most notable being those that exhibit two distinct effects, a large crackle colored in one stain, and a smaller in another.
CRICKETS are frequently kept in special cages, and persons of high rank as well as others amuse themselves by irritating two insects in a dish and then betting on the prowess of their favorites.
DOG FO, sometimes called "lion Fo," or Tai Shih, a chimera with grinning muzzle and sharp teeth, curly mane, and big claws, generally represented playing with a ball (" chu") : the habitual defender of the threshold.
DRAGON, emblem of the Emperors of China ; the number of claws marks the rank of the wearer. Thus the Imperial dragon, tang, has five claws; and the dragon of princes of the third and fourth ranks, only four claws.
The tang, or dragon, is chief of the four Chinese supernatural beasts. Regarded as the king of the scaly tribe, in its usual form it is a composite monster with the scowling head of the camel, horns of a deer, eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a snake, scaly serpentine body, claws of a hawk, formidable paws of a tiger, and curious flame-like appendages to its shoulders.
The dragon of the sea assumably ascends in waterspouts, and is regarded as the ruler of all its phenomena, and as such is worshiped and feared by Chinese fishermen. The superstition of all classes toward it is probably a modified relic of the wide-spread serpent-worship of ancient times. (Williams's " Middle Kingdom.")
In art, the colors vary according to the taste of the artists, but white, yellow, and blue are perhaps the most frequently seen ; each shade having its own symbolical meaning, although the huang-lung, or "yellow dragon,-is the most honored of the series or tribe. As an emblem of majesty its name is a euphemism for that of the Emperors of China and Japan; the Imperial throne (lung-Tvei) becoming the - dragon-seat," the face of the ruler (lung yen), the " dragon countenance."
DRAGON'S-EYE FRUIT (" Lung-yen "), Nephet-ium Longanum.
EGG-SHELL ('` "), so called from its being
supposed to be no thicker than the shell of an egg. These fragile pieces are made usually in " hard paste - and of the purest materials, carefully prepared and manipulated through every stage, from the wet clay to the baking and the final glazing and painting. In the history of King-to-chen we find that a quasi egg-shell (known as " Han P'i ") was produced during the Lung-lo period. Ming writers refer to their porcelain as being made as " thin as paper -
and called " or bodiless ; but allow-
ance must be made for their flowery Eastern style of writing.
The most notable egg-shell to-day is the " famille-verte " type, made under the Emperor K'ang-hsi, followed by the esteemed " famille-rose " egg-shell porcelain of Yung-chien and Chien-lung. True egg-shell presents great difficulties in its manufacture, and requires extraordinary dexterity on the part of the ceramist artists to produce it perfectly.
ENAMEL, a term applied to 'colored glazes employed in painting on porcelain, as well as to the opaque white coating that is sometimes spread over a coarser quality of porcelain, and used especially upon large pieces.
In technology the term is exclusively reserved to enamel painting over the glaze.
The Chinese style of painting with these enamel colors differs entirely from the European; especially is this so in older specimens, where the forms are not modeled, and only strokes of black or darker shades define the outlines. The colors, laid on in flat tints, are stronger and more decorative than in European products, and a lightness of shades gives a peculiarity which makes them approach nearer than any other to the vitrified substances known as enamels. Chinese porcelains are therefore
characterized by simplicity and by a greater degree of uniformity.
The varieties of the center or muffle-fire colors have played probably as important a part in the high reputation gained by Chinese porcelains as have the originality and harmony of the designs or forms.
ENGOBE. See Slip Decoration.
EUROPEAN PATTERN. The influential position occupied by the Jesuits was maintained chiefly by their high attainments in the sciences and as members of the Board of Astronomy down to 1 8 1 4. Contemporaneously with this, they exercised considerable influence upon other matters not directly connected with the studies for which they were famous. Through them was brought about a style of decoration on porcelain, for the Palace and for general use, that was purely European in its character, going so far as to reproduce objects from European capitals as well as copying the dress and scenes of European life.
On certain Chien-lung, Chia-ching, and Tao-kuang porcelain a decided tendency is shown toward Western detail ; in some pieces may be noted a marked resemblance to arabesques and foliated omamentation, evidently derived from illuminated missals and due largely to the influence of the missionaries and their schools. Besides these, the Imperial household was greatly impressed with the enamels of Limoges, snuff-boxes, and European watches which came to China from France, especially during Yung-cheng's reign, so that several Jesuit brothers were commissioned to make European designs for the decoration of porcelain, and every object not perfect was rejected by the superintendent of the Imperial factory. Many of these gradually passed into other hands. Possessing novelty to the Chinese mind and interest from the fact that they were appreciated at court, these objects would serve as models in the decoration of ordinary ware, and thus account for the decadence of the earlier Mongolian character on such objects.
FAMILLE ROSE, a term given by Jacquemart to objects in which the rose-color may dominate the over-glaze decoration.
FAMILLE VERTE, a term applied by Jacquemart to a class of over-glaze decoration in which green enamels are dominant. The foregoing terms, although first decried by some writers on Chinese porcelains, have proved very useful in quickly describing the character of such specimens.
FENG-HUANG, or FE.NG-HWANG (frequently translated as " Phoenix ''), is the generic designation usually employed for a fabulous bird of wondrous farm and mystic nature, the special emblem of the Empresses of China. In works of art, it is a nondescript bird of paradise or a compound of a peacock with the addition of five gorgeous colors, typical of the five cardinal virtues. In literature, it is said to have the head of a pheasant, the back of a swallow, the neck of a tortoise, and the outward semblance of a dragon. (Mayer)
Early legends narrated that this bird made its appearance as a presage of the advent of virtuous rulers.
FILLETS, pieces of red cloth or tape looped or tied round anything believed to possess the efficacy of a charm. They are, in fact, to the charm what the halo is to the deities or gods and goddesses.
FISH. The carp and perch are the two species most employed in art.
Two fishes, united by loops or fillets, have reference to domestic felicity. The perch, called " Fu," is supposed to go about in pairs ; and this word having the same sound as "Fu;' happiness (meaning also plenty), by increasing the number to two (following the usual Chinese method of expressing a superlative) it is made to mean a wish for the utmost plenty.
FLAMBE ("Yao-pien") or transmutation commonly termed "splashed glaze": a variety of colors in accidental or wilful dappled effect.
FU, or FUH, a character meaning " Happiness" : often represented on presentation porcelain in circular seal or other form.
FUNGUS (" Lin-tchi " or " Ling-chih "), Poly-pores lucklus, which grows at or near the root of trees. As it is very durable when dried, it has been considered by the Chinese as an emblem of longevity, and frequently employed in decoration or as a mark on porcelain, together with the grass which grows near it.
GENII (" Yu Sien 1, a certain race of immortals, who have eaten of the leaves of the tree called " KIen." The result of this food is that the
bodies of those who eat of it become pellucid as crystal. This notion is derived in part atleast, as would appear, from Buddhist &Inas, where a tree, called the tree of the King of Drugs, is said to grow on the Himalayas, and to possess such magic virtues that whoever smells, touches, or tastes it is immediately healed of all diseases. (Mayer.)
GLAZE, the thin glassy covering of porcelain. In China it is made of pe-tun mixed with lime, petrosilex, and fern ashes; " hoa-chi " (steatite) is also used, sometimes mixed with the glaze and at other times in the paste ; another substance used in the same way is called" Yeou-ko " (d'Entrecolles).
The glaze is prepared to a liquid state and applied by immersion, by sprinkling, or by being blown from a tube with gauze. See also Enamels.
GOURD (" Hu-lu "), an emblem of longevity, owing to its durability when dried.
GRAVIATA (a term rarely used), Pekin porcelain, made as a yearly tribute to the Emperor, who, having a large collection of it, often presents it to European and other visitors. It was produced particularly under Ch'ien-lung(1 73 6179 5) and the succeeding period of Tao-kouang. Large vases, and especially bowls, exist of this class, with a yellow, rose, or pink ground, usually engraved in small patterns and covered over with other enamel colors in rich arabesque motives. Large medallions are left in white reserve for separate flower and bird decorations.
The bowls are generally known as " medallion bowls," and come also in a yellow-citron or crimson body-color, with similar engraved field.
HALL-MARKS, a form of inscription on Chinese porcelains, often put on pieces according to the fancy of the decorator; but as the artist used the more or less romantic designation of his studio as a " nom de plume," or the seal of the superintendent of the Imperial factory, much uncertainty exists as to these so-called " hallmarks." They are found on pieces of varying qualities, from those made and inscribed with the name of an Imperial pavilion to the "flowery " trade-mark of some particular shop where they were subsequently offered for sale.
HAND-OF.BUDDHA (" Fo-show "), or " Buddha's-hand," a peculiar kind of citrus fruit (Citrus Sarcodadylus), cultivated in China, terminating in long, narrow points like fingers, hence called " hand of Fo " or Buddha. It is made to run to rind, and its odor is said to be powerful, although rather pleasant. The citron is common in southern provinces, and extraordinarily large, but scarcely eaten ; being put on a dish to please the eye and smell.
HAPPINESS, GOD OF (" Fu Hsing "). See Lao Tsze.
HARD PASTE (" pate dur6"), a term used for white Chinese porcelain proper. It is formed of two materials — one, called kaolin, which is derived from a feldspathic clay (see Kaolin and Porcelain); and the other, called in China " pe-tun," a mixture of feldspar and quartz that by careful preparation is turned into a fine white fusible substance.
The paste of fine hard porcelain is translucent and vitrified, differing from ordinary earthenware as — for example, faience — in both respects, and from stoneware, which has no clear ring. See Soft Paste.
HAWTHORN, an English trade term used to designate the prunus-blossom (" Mei-hwa ") decoration : notable in the blue and white and also among the several colored grounds, i.e. black, green, and yellow, hence the so-called blue hawthorn, the black hawthorn, etc.
HO-HO (Japanese): a term frequently used incorrectly. See Feng-huang (Chinese).
HSI-WANG-MU (literally, "Royal Mother of the West "), the legendary Queen of the Genii, who is supposed to have dwelt in Central Asia among the Ku'lun Mountains (also written Kw'en-lun and identified by modern geographers with the Hindu Kush), where she held court. Lich Tsze gives a fanciful tale or allegorical rhapsody based on the entertainment with which King Mu of the Chou dynasty was honored and enthralled by the fairy queen during his famed travels (about 985 B.C). In later ages the superstitious vagaries of the Emperor Wu Ti of the Han dynasty (died 87 B.C.) gave rise to innumerable fables respecting the alleged visits paid to that monarch by Hsi-wang-mu and her fairy troop. The imagination of the Taoist writers of the ensuing centuries was exercised in glowing descriptions of the magnificence of her mountain palace close by the " Lake of Gems " and the " forests of chrysoprase," where the " tree of jade-stone,"
which is the tree of life and the peach-tree of the genii, is supposed to grow, whose fruit confers the gift of immortality which is bestowed by the goddess upon favored beings admitted to her presence ; and whence she despatches her azure-winged birds (" Ch'ing-niao "), that serve, like the doves of Venus, as her messengers. In process of time a consort was found for her (Tung Wang-kung, or King of the East), who appears to owe many of his attributes to the Hindu legends of India. By the time of the Sung dynasty, a highly mystical doctrine respecting the pair was developed and elaborated in literature (the " Kwang chi"). The more sober researches of modem writers lead to the suggestion that Wang-mu was the name either of a region or of a sovereign in the ancient West. In painting, Hsi-wang-mu is usually depicted as a beautiful female in the attire of a Chinese princess, attended by two young girls, one of whom holds a basket of peaches and the other a large fan.
IMPERIAL PORCELAIN, a term applied usually to objects (made under the Ching dynasty) the interior and foot of which are glazed in turquoise or other distinct enamel color, contrasting with the exterior ground-color, and distinguished by the mark of Nien-hao being deeply incised.
JU-I, or J00-E, a short curved wand terminating in a fungiform trefoil at the upper end : carved usually in jade or some other material of special value. This rod is probably of Buddhistic origin, as in ancient Buddhistic paintings it is usually in the hands of priests of high rank, and is regarded as a symbol, therefore, of the power of faith. It is also used as a scepter of office and authority.
KAOLIN, a hydrated silicate of alumina, produced by the decomposition of feldspathic rock. It is by itself infusible, but is one of the most important materials entering into the composition of Chinese porcelain. Originally so called from the locality whence it was derived (Kao-ling, near King-te-then). Kaolin is the material that gives plasticity and strength to porcelain paste. It is found in the mountains, and is purified and strained first through a fine sieve, then through a fine silken bag made double, and drained. The paste thus formed is kneaded and worked until the material is thoroughly compact, after which it is made into small bricks like the " pe-tun-tse. These bucks are marked or stamped by the makers, and sold in this shape to the ceramist ; but Pere d'Entrecolles stated that sometimes counterfeit marks were put upon an inferior article.
KILN, a porcelain furnace : called in China " Chao-yao."
KING-Tt-CHEN (Mandarin): town in which the most important factories are situated. Seepage xviii.
KLAN-YIN, or KWAN-YIN, the goddess called "Queen of Heaven." Her name means " Hearer of Prayers." Kuan-yin is believed to share with Amitabha the dominion of the Paradise in the West. This Bodhisattva, according to Chinese theories, is of native origin, and was originally the daughter of a king of the (first) Chou dynasty (690 B.C.), a date preceding the introduction in China of Buddhism from India. Maternal images of this goddess holding a child are often met with in ceramic ark
KY-LIN. or Cfr-LIN, a generic name of one of the four supernatural creatures of Chinese Buddhistic tradition : an emblem of good government and long life. It is called " unicorn " when represented with a horn. There are several varieties of this curious and legendary animal. It is supposed to appear only when wise and just rulers or great men, like Confucius, are born, and, with the Feng-huang and the red fox, is considered to be of good omen. Said " to tread so lightly as to leave no footprints, so cautiously as to crush no living creature." This animal is said to attain the age of a thousand years, and is looked upon as the head of hairy animals. It is depicted with characteristics of many different creatures, being sometimes shown with scaly hide, hoofs and legs like a deer, and a tufted tail; the shoulders bearing Game-like appendages significant of its divine nature. Its appellation, Ky-lin, is compounded from Ki, the male, and Lin, the female animal.
LACE PATTERN. See Vandyke Pattern.
LANG-YAO, a Chinese term for sang-de-bceuf porcelain, technically the most perfect of its class: named after the famous potter, Lang-ting-so, who was later a director of the Imperial factory at King-te-then under the Emperor Kang-hsi.
LAO TSZE, or SHOU-LAO, the founder of the Taoist system of philosophy. Born under a plum-tree (" Li "), he is said to have taken this as a surname. According to some Chinese records he became incarnate 1321 B.C., while other accounts state that he was born in the second month of the dragon year and period of Wu Ting 1324-1265 B.C.
Other particulars of his life which are considered authentic state that he was the keeper of records at Lo. a capital during the Chou dynasty, about the dose of the sixth century B.C., and professed a doctrine of abstraction from worldly cares based upon speculations regarding Reason (Tao) and Virtue (Te). It is stated that this excited the curiosity of Confucius, who is said to have visited Lao Tsze, and to have retired disconcerted at his bold flights of imagination. (The statement regarding this meeting is, however, open to doubt.) After a long period of service, Lao Tsze is said to have retired to the West. after confiding a written statement of his philosophy to a keeper of a frontier pass of Han Ku, named Yin Hsi.
Later mystics improved upon this account of his "classic of Reason and Virtue" by assigning a period of mythical antiquity and a miraculous conception, through the influence of a star, to Lao Tsze.s birth.
According to the various accounts, he has lived for many centuries. His professed disciples, Lich Tse and Chuang Tze (in the fourth century B.C.), and Hai Nan Tze (in the second century B.C.), progressively developed the mystic element thus introduced, and a notable impetus accrued to it from the superstitious belief with which the pretensions of the alchemists were received by the Emperor Wu Ti, from whose period onward the reverence paid to the founder began to assume a divine character.
In 666 A.D. he was for the first time ranked among the gods, being canonized by the Emperor as the " Great Supreme," the " Emperor of the Dark First Cause,- and his title was again enlarged in 1013.
The achievement of corporeal immortality having been the chief aim of the sect named after him; the founder, Lao Tsze, naturally came to be considered the " God of Longevity:. and as such he figures in paintings, and very frequently also on porcelains, being usually depicted as an aged man leaning upon a stall. He may be distinguished by his low stature, extremely lofty forehead, and long flowing beard. Sometimes he is shown riding on a stag or a tortoise,
and generally holding a " " in his hand, at other times the fruit of the fabulous fruit-tree " Fan-tao," which blossoms every three thousand years and does not yield its peaches until three thousand years afterward.
LI-CHI (Nephellom Li-chi), a fruit sometimes grouped, in decoration, with peaches or flowers upon Yung-cheng and other porcelains.
LO-CHOU. This mystic enigmatical device was originated in the remote dynasty of Ha (B.C.), and inspired by the markings on the back of a turtle which appeared on the surface of the water to Yu, a sovereign of that remote period, during great inundation of the country (22172197 B.C.).
Chinese and Anamite philosophers still ding to its forms and uses, and military movements or positions of troops have been regulated by its uses; combination of the points also signify various virtues.
LOHAN. See Arhats.
LONGEVITY, GOD OF (Shou Hsing), one of the three star-gods (the others being the God of Happiness and the God of Rank), often grouped or shown separately on porcelains. See Lao Tsze.
LONGEVITY, the first and greatest of the " Woo Fuh," or five blessings, emblems of which occur frequently on porcelain, and take a great variety of forms, all symbolizing good wishes to the possessors.
LOTUS, a Buddhistic flower. The Chinese place the Nelumbium Opeciosum, or " sacred lotus,- at the head of cultivated flowers. It perpetually occurs on porcelain, and may be called the emblem of fruitfulness ; it is also symbolical of summer.
LUCKY EMBLEMS, (" Pa-chi-hsiang "), eight in number, are of Buddhistic origin and derived from India. They are altar-pieces, and, caned in wood or molded in clay with variations both of shape and detail, enter largely into the archi-
tectural decoration of temples. In their or-
dinary form they also appear on porcelain as: (I) a bell (" Chung "), or a wheel with fillets (" Lun "), representing the wheel of law; (2) a shell with fillets (" Lo "), the chank-shell of the Buddhists ; (3) an umbrella (" San "), a
state umbrella with fillets: (4) a canopy (" Kai ") with fillets ; (5) a lotus-flower (" Lien-hua "), sometimes replaced by the peony (Madan); (6) a vase (" Kuan ") with fillets; (7) two dishes (" Erh Yu ") united by fillets, allegorical of domestic happiness; (8) angular knot with fillets (" Ch'ang 1, an emblem of long life. LU HSING (the God of Rank), one of the three star-gods. See Shou and Fu Hsing.
MAGNOLIA (Yulan), Magnolia Conspicua, the emblem of sweetness or beauty: often found depicted on Ming and early K'ang-hsi specimens.
MAGPIE, the "bird of happiness- (from its merry-sounding chatter), especially favored and protected by the present occupants of the throne of China, by reason of the part played by this bird in the divine origin of their ancestor. It is owing to those legends that the magpie figures so often on the porcelains of this dynasty, and especially during the period of Emperor K'ang-hsi.
MANDARIN DUCKS (" Yuan-yang"), beautiful fowls which, when mated, manifest a singular degree of attachment for each other, and hence are often used as emblems of connubial affection and fidelity.
MANDARIN FLOWERS, a term sometimes applied to the most popular Chinese flowers, .e., chrysanthemum, peony, magnolia, prunus blossom, and orchid sprays.
MANDARIN PORCELAIN, a term used by Jacque-mart to distinguish certain types of an elaborate style of embellishment, generally depicting mandarins, with attendants or other accessories, upon reserved panels that are usually surrounded with superabundant decorations, including ornaments in slight relief and gilt. The finest pieces are of egg-shell, dating from the end of K'ang-hsi to very recent times.
MANG, a composite beast resembling the dragon without homs, and often employed as a decoration on porcelain. In art it is usually represented as a lizard with scowling head and beard, a long serpentine body, and four feet bearing claws but without talons.
MOTIVES OF DECORATIONS (on porcelains). Chinese artists drew their historical, legendary, and religious inspirations almost entirely from their literature, or from paintings produced by masters of the Sung, Yuan, and Ming dynasties and doubtless originally drawn from biographies of famous heroes and scholars. Among the most elaborate subjects may be noted those founded on the episodes of history, a large proportion being instances connected with the rise and fall of the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to 220 A.D.).
Aside from the historical domain, these early masters were remarkably felicitous in rendering the wilder forms of picturesque beauty in landscape, showing towering silicic or rocky peaks, rugged cliffs, and gnarled old trees, cascades, winding streams, and cultivated valleys. These elements the Chinese artist presents on porcelain in a thousand never-failing embellishments of interest; or, again, he shows more simple motives of floral or vegetable life, no more ambitious than a bit of bamboo or pine twig, or a branch of the plum or peach, a magnolia or peony in bloom, with a bird or two in symbolism of a virtue or of good wishes.
Mythical zoology also holds an important place in his art motives, and is drawn upon very often for the embellishment of porcelain, if for no other reason than that these fabulous animals appertain to Buddhism and Taoism, are often special emblems.
MARKS, on Chinese porcelains, are divided into various classes, viz.:
- Date-marks, in two modes— Nien-hao and dynastic.
- Hall-marks.
- Marks of dedication and good wishes.
- Marks in praise of the pieces on which they are inscribed.
- Symbols and other pictorial marks.
- Potters marks.
The full list will be found in several works on Oriental ceramics and marks.
MARTABANI, a term applied by the Persians and Turks, in ancient times, to celadon ware, valued especially by them on account of its supposed quality of acting as a detector of poison.
MUFFLE-KILN (called by the French " petite feu "), a kiln used for soft glazes or colors containing a large proportion of lead that diffuse or vitrify easily.
NIEN-HAO, the name adopted by a Chinese emperor, after ascending the throne, to indi-
cate the years of his reign. It dates from the beginning of the new year after his accession, and it is supposed to signify the qualities of the Emperor. The " nien-hao " of the Emperor Kuang-hsti (who is now reigning) means " inherited luster."
It must be noted that the whole of a year in which an emperor dies is always attributed to his reign, so that the reign of his successor begins only on the first day of the following year, when a new " nien-hao " is adopted, it being contrary to etiquette to mention the personal name of a Chinese sovereign.
The practice was introduced under the Han dynasty, when the monarch, on his accession to the throne (163 B.C.), selected a title for his reign in place of the title of Prince So-and-so, which had been usually employed prior to the time of Shih Huangti, 221 B.C. These titles were usually so chosen as to be of happy augury; but if, in spite of such good omen, disorder or misfortune ensued, or some other reason seemed to render a change advisable, one title would be abandoned in favor of another. This title is termed nien-hao, " the year designation," because so long as it lasts the date of all events is chronicled as such-and-such a year of such-and-such a " nien-hao."
Upon his death, however, the Emperor receives an honorific title, under which the religious ceremonies due to him are offered, and which is therefore termed the rniao-hao, or "temple designation."
The dates upon porcelain are usually recorded by the use of the " nien-hao " as above described. The practice of marking the date of manufacture was instituted by the Emperor Chen Tsung of the Sung dynasty, when, on the establishment of the government factory at King-te-chen, he ordered that each article manufactured should be marked with the " nien-hao " then used : " Ching-te, 1004 to 1007."
Since that time, putting aside monochromes, which, in probably the majority of instances, bear no mark, they have been employed uninterruptedly, except during a portion of Kang-hsi's Le., in 1677,—when the magis-
trate in charge at King-te-chen forbade the practice alike of inscribing the date and of portraying the actions of celebrated personages, on the ground that if the article were broken, disrespect might be shown to them or to the Emperor. During this period of the reign, which was of but short duration, however, a leaf, censer, ring, or other mark replaced the " nien-hao."
ORANGE-PEEL SURFACE, a term applied to a peculiar roughened texture produced by skilful technique during the wet state of the paste, and when glazed resembling the skin of an orange: found usually on rare types of porcelain.
OVER-GLAZE and UNDER-GLAZE, two modes of applying colored decoration on porcelain. In each method the " high " or " low " or "muffled" firing is used according to the colors employed. The blue decoration, for example, under the glaze, is made with the brush on the unbaked porcelain, which is then covered with the glazing compound, applied by insufflation. The "over-glaze " decoration in enamel colors is done in the muffle-kiln after the surface is glazed and baked in the " high-fire" temperature.
PA-KWA, a set of eight mystical trigrams of ancient Chinese philosophy, generally arranged in an octagonal form, with the " Yang and yin"(the primordial essences) in the center.
Developed (2852-2738 B.C.) by Fuh-hi, the forms were revealed to him on the back of a " dragon-horse " which rose out of the sea. They are arranged and used in many different ways, and often appear on porcelain as symbols. Chinese philosophers of remote periods have attempted to explain, through these mystic combinations of lines, all secrets of nature and being. The unbroken line typifies the male, and the broken line the female ; they also symbolize the points of the compass.
PA-PAO, or " eight precious things," often employed for the decoration of porcelain. They vary considerably in form, and the explanations of their meaning are conflicting. The usual forms bear fillets and are : (I) an oblate spherical object (" Chen "), representing the precious pearl ; (2) a disk inclosing an open square, possibly a " cash," emblematic of riches ; (3) an open lozenge placed horizontally ; (4) a lozenge placed horizontally, but with a second lozenge or chevron in the upper angle ; (5) a sonorous stone (" Ching " or " King "), used in remote periods instead of a bell, and constituting an
emblem of happiness or goodness ; (6) two oblong books placed at angles or sidewise, allegorical of learning (books are suspended with other charms in the pagoda at Nanking to ward off evil influences —" Middle Kingdom," Vol. I); (7) two rhinoceros-homs (" se-keo "), shaped into quadrangular form at the opening — a pair is supposed to be an emblem of happiness ; (8) a leaf of the artemisia (" ai yeh "), an emblem of good augury.
PA-CHI-HSIANG. See Lucky Emblems.
PA-STEN, the eight immortals or legendary beings of the Taoist sect, who are venerated and are frequently depicted on porcelain. Each has a special emblem or attribute which occasionally occurs as a device of embellishment, and these are collectively known as " Pa-an-hsien," or the eight Taoist emblems of the immortals. PEACH-TREE (" Tao "). This tree holds a prominent place in the mystical fancies of the Taoists, and the peach is an emblem of marriage and a symbol of longevity. The gum of the peach-tree, mixed with mulberry-ash, is used as an elixir vita by Taoists.
PEONY (Mou-tan), Paeonia Moot" the symbol of spring. It bears also the name of Kua-wang (" king of flowers "), and is regarded when blooming as an omen of good fortune. On the other hand, if the flowers fade and the leaves dry up, the change foreshadows poverty or other disaster to the family of its owner.
In the south of China the peony represents love and affection.
PE-TUN, a fine white fusible substance entering with kaolin into the paste or glaze of Chinese porcelain, and giving it transparency, but which by itself would fall apart. It is a mixture of feldspathic stone, quartz, silica, silex, and certain limestones obtained from mountains in or near Lin-tching.
The stone petrosilex (" pe-tun") is crushed in large mortars and pounded to fine powder, then put into large jars or vats filled with water, stirred, and allowed to stand for a short time, after which the scum which rises is skimmed off and put into another vessel. The dregs of the first jar are taken out and pounded over again; the process being repeated until all the foreign parts are removed. After settling, the water in the last jar is carefully drawn off, and the remaining sediment or paste is pressed into large forms and dried. Before it is quite hard it is divided up into small cakes or bricks. These are the " pe-tun-Lie," or "white-clay bricks."
PINE-TREE, a common emblem of longevity.
POMEGRANATE, cultivated chiefly for its beauty as a flowering plant. It is also a Buddhist sign, the fruit being supposed to represent the essence of favorable influence. The Chinese name "Kiat" has the same pronunciation as the word for luck, so when peaches (longevity) and pomegranate (luck) are combined, the symbolism means these blessings.
PORCELAIN is classified under two divisions, hard and soft paste. It is translucent and partially vitrified, has a pure white body, and is sonorous and impermeable to water. By reason of its vitrification and translucency it is distinguishable from all other ceramic products, and this quality doubtless inspired the name of porcelain in Europe, for when it first appeared its novelty suggested a resemblance to mother-of-pearl or some other shells : at least this seems to be the accepted hypothesis.
The word porcelain has undergone different unimportant transformations at the hands of European writers, who have referred to this wonderful product from the East, giving the word according to their own language, and so we find the word " pourcelain " in medieval French inventories, presumably applied to many different objects, such as vases or other utensils made of shells or mother-of-pearl.
Both Jacquemart and Fiquier believed the word porcelain to be derived from the Portuguese porcolaa or porcolla (vessel); but it is possible that the word porcelain is of Italian origin, and derived from the similarity of its glazed white surface to that of the cowry-shell, called by the Italians porcellana.
The fact, therefore, singularly appears that China, although the creator of this marvelous product, did not give it a name acceptable to or used by Western countries, and that it remained for Europe to call it porcelain.
In China porcelain is termed Yao, the word signifying an object baked in a kiln, whether glazed porcelain or glazed pottery. This word came into use during the Tang dynasty (618 AD.). when the paste became more translucent and white through the use of kaolin.
The word Than was used before that epoch, and refers to a primitive kind of pottery or
stoneware. The Chinese also called a particular kind of porcelain Tse, which term designated a porcelain made from a stone called rse-chi, found in the district of Tse-tcheou.
Generally Chinese porcelain contains more silica and less alumina than the products made at Sevres, Vienna, or Dresden. The effect of the presence in greater or less degree of these compounds is well known by the Chinese. In some cases they employ ferruginous kaolin, which sensibly diminishes the value of the article. See Porcelain Paste.
PORCELAIN PASTE. Kaolin and "pe-tun-tse" in equal portions are used for porcelain of the finest quality; four parts kaolin to six of "pe-tun-tse- for the second quality; one part kaolin to three parts "pe-tun-tse- for the third.
The mixture is made into paste with water, compressed, rolled and kneaded on a table, and beaten to remove air-bubbles. In its malleable state it is ready for the potter's wheel, where it receives its form.
The portions that cannot be turned on a wheel, such as handles and other attachments, are separately molded and fastened on with layers of paste and a bit of gum. After the surface is smoothed, relief ornamentations, if any, are added, and a piece is put away to dry. Large objects are generally made in two or three parts, joined together by moistened paste. While the foot is still unwrought there is added the decoration in blue or other colors which require to be highly fired. The glaze is next applied, either by dipping or blowing with a tube. This strengthens the object sufficiently to permit the workman to fashion the foot on a wheel and to inscribe a mark. Coated with glaze, the piece is ready for the kiln.
RICE-GRAIN PATTERN, or "grains de riz," a term applied to a pierced design in the form of a star diaper: so called because it resembles grains of rice, which are filled out with glaze, leaving the pattern semi-transparent.
RISHI ('Sien-nung ''), genii of humankind, or recluses (variously classified), who have succeeded in freeing themselves from perturbation of spirit and the infirmities of the flesh, or have attained to immortality in the existing world; also, the deified genii who have bidden farewell to earth and have departed to roam among the three "Islands of the Blest.-
ROUGE D'OR, a rose- or crimson-tinged pink enamel derived from gold.
FAKYANIUNI, the historical Buddha, who died 966 B.C., and is venerated throughout China, as in Japan, as the founder of the Buddhist faith. He shares the honors of worship with Amitabha, one of the very many factitious Buddhas invented by the Mahayana school at the beginning of the fourth century of our era. He is sometimes represented with beard and shaven head, attired in flowing garments agitated by the winds, and holding his hands in a position of prayer. His ear-lobes are enlarged, his head encircled by a nimbus, and his brow bears the "lima- (a light-giving circle of hair, the mark of a Buddha or 136dhisattva).
At other times he is represented seated upon a thalamus, resting his left hand upon his knee and holding up the right hand with the palm directly forward.
The hair is represented by a blue mass resembling short close curls of uniform size, and a jewel is placed about midway between the crown and the forehead. The "(luta" and nimbus are always present.
SANG-DE-BCEUF, a term applied first in France to a particularly brilliant red glaze which resembles the color of "beef blood." The oldest dates from the Mings, and the finest is K'ang-hsi.
SEGGARS, casings of clay into which pieces of porcelain are packed for protection from injury while in the kiln: usually so placed in the furnace that each separate object may receive its proper degree of heat.
SHAGREENED, a term applied when the surface of porcelain shows small round points or, according to the Chinese expression, "chicken-flesh."
SHOU.LAO HSIANG, also called "God of Longevity." See Lao Tsze.
Note. The three star-gods (" San Hsing 1 of Happiness, Rank, and Longevity, Fu, Lu, and Shou, are often associated, but sometimes figure separately in art and in porcelain.
SHOW, or SHOU, a character denoting longevity, frequently represented in a circular or seal form, and often figuring on (presentation) porcelain: regarded as very felicitous to its possessor. It is used in a variety of styles.
SLIP, OR ENCORE DECORATION, a white enamel embellishment sometimes practised by Chinese decorators on porcelain or pottery, somewhat resembling wedgwood or, in the finest technical sense, the "pate sur pate" of the French, where the white enamel is delicately manipulated into raised forms of design, usually on a celadon, blue, or carmine ground.
The finest examples of this class from China show a delicate lace-like tracery in white over the body glazing, done by means of a brush with the diluted paste made of "hoa-chi," which is prepared to the consistency of enameling liquid. The other style of slip-work is usually noticed on rather ordinary ware, and shows the white enamel as it flowed from the mechanical device, without brush-work or other manipulation.
SOFT PASTE, or " PATE TENDRE," a particular kind of Chinese porcelain, sometimes called Fen-ting, much lighter in weight than hard paste, and usually distinguishable also by a more creamy-white texture, and with fine crackle. Pere d'Entrecolles described a " soft paste," or pate tendre, made during the latter part of the reign of K'ang-hsi (1 712) as follows: "Quite recently a new material has been found, which can be substituted for kaolin ; it is called hoa-chi; and is a kind of stone or rather chalk (steatite), of about the consistency of hard soap. Porcelain made of this material is very expensive. It is very brittle and difficult to bake, but offers the most desirable surface for the artist to paint on, retaining the colors perfectly; for which reason the body of the pieces is frequently made of common material and the surface covered with this ' hoa-chi; by dipping the piece into the prepared liquid. It is also much lighter than the average porcelain; and where kaolin costs but 20 sous, the hoa-chi costs an ecu' (an ecu equaled $1.20 in 1712), so that the latter materials cost just five times more.- The white of " hoa-chi - was called " Siang-ya-pe," or the "white of ivory.- The various ways of mixing the composition of soft paste no doubt accounts for the many and varying descriptions that appear concerning it. See Hard Paste.
SOUFFLE, a French term, used where the colored glaze is blown upon an object of porcelain by means of a little tube having one end covered with a fine gauze ; this end is dipped into the prepared color, and the decorator brings it near the object and blows through the other end ; this is repeated until the desired effect is obtained.
SPUR-MARKS, generally three in number, seldom
on Chinese porcelain, but sometimes found on
the bottom of Japanese pieces, caused by the - props after decoration or glazing.
STORK, the, is supposed to reach a fabulous age; it is one of the emblems of longevity, and is often pictured on porcelain for this reason.
SUPERNATURAL. The four animals, according to "Li Ki,," one of the five Chinese classics, are the feng (phmnix), the knwei (tortoise), the lung (dragon), and the tie (unicorn).
SWASTIKA ("Wan"), Cross of Buddha, or Fylfot, a mystic diagram of great antiquity, the special mark of all deities worshiped by the lotus school, and in China is regarded as the emblem of Buddha's heart: generally used as a symbol for long periods of time, and therefore an allegory of the blessing of long life. The swastika, or its form, is of wide diffusion, and is found in the rock temples of India as well as among all Buddhistic people of Asia, and even among Teutonic races,—an emblem of Thor.
SYMBOLIC FRUITS (three), the pomegranate, peach, and "Buddha's-hand" citron, are symbolic of three abundances, viz.: abundance of years, abundance of sons, and abundance of happiness.
THOUSAND-FLOWER PATTERN, a term applied to pieces where the entire ground is covered with a profusion of varied flowers with only here and there a leaf to break the uniformity of design and to afford relief. The drawing in fine specimens produced under Chien-lung is done with the utmost accuracy, and the observation of details most minutely correct.
TIGER ("Hu") the, is described as the king of beasts, and the representative of the masculine or active principle of nature, and figures in Chinese art as one of the common Buddhistic symbols. The tiger is also the special attribute of the Taoist rishi Ku ling-jin and the steed of Ts'ai Lwan, or Wen Liao, one of the four sleepers.
TRIAD of the Taoist cult, Fu, Lu, and Shou (San Hsing),the three star-gods of Happiness, Rank, and Longevity.
VANDYKE PATTERN, a term applied in England to porcelain, decorated in blue, where the motive shows borders with scalloped or lancet-shaped outlines, and inclosing floral arabesques like on the so-called lace pattern.
WAN-TSE, a symbolic device or mark, in diamond form, appearing on presentation pieces, and often jointly with the cross of swastika, meaning "ten thousand things,- "everything,- "all creation."
WANG-MU. See Hsi-wang-mu.
WILLOW, the, common in all parts of China. A general idea prevails that this tree, or its branches, is an omen of good to the family of a house where it is suspended from the eaves, or over the front doors. The willow is also used in this way to ward off wicked spirits. (Doolittle.)
Buddhists consider that water sprinkled by means of a willow branch has a purifying effect.
During the Tang dynasty, the willow was selected as a badge by Wang-chap for his followers in a rebellion which was planned against the reigning Emperor, he secretly ordering those who were favorable to him to stick up a branch of willow under the eaves and over their front doors ; and his soldiers were accordingly instructed not to molest the people in these particular homes.
YANG AND YING (" In and Ye), a common art motive on porcelain, in the form of a circle subdivided by two comma-shaped light and dark segments which symbolize the active and passive, or masculine and feminine coefficient nature. This Chinese mystic symbol bears a singular parallel to that extraordinary fiction of Egyptian mythology, the supposed intervention of a Mascolo, feminine principle in the development of the mundane egg.
The "Tae-keih" is said to have produced the Yang and the Yin. See also Pa-kwa. (Davis, Vol. II.)
YAO, a term applied to certain porcelain in China.
The following authorities, whose perusal will reward the deeper student,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
have been used in compiling these pages :
"A History and Description of Chinese Porcelains," by Cosmo Monkhouse, with notes by S. W. Bushell, M.D. Cassell & Co., London, 1901.
"Ancient Porcelain: a Study in Chinese Medize-val Industry and Trade," by F. Hirth, Ph.D. Hong-Kong, 1888.
"La Porcelaine de Chine," par 0. du Sartel. Morel & Co., Paris, 1881.
"Oriental Ceramic Art," by S. W. Bushell, M.D. D. Appleton, New York, 1897. (Collection of W. T. Walters, Esq., Baltimore, U.S. A.)
"Chinese Porcelains,- by W. G. Galland, with notes by T. J. Larkin, 1902. London.
"Histoire et Fabrication de Ia Porcelaine Chi-noise," translated by Stanislas Julien, with notes and additions by Alphonse Salvetat. Paris, 1856.
"La Ceramique Chinoise," by M. Ernest Gran-didier, Paris, 1894. (Collection now at the Louvre.)
"The Chinese Reader's Manual," by W. F.
Mayer. London and Shanghai, 1874. "The Middle Kingdom," by S. Wells Williams.
New York, London, 1861.
" Histoire de Ia Ceramique," by Albert J. Jacque-mart; etching by Jules Jacquemart. Paris, 1862.
"The Garland Collection of Chinese Porcelains," hand-book, by John Getz. New York, 1895. (Metropolitan Museum of Art.)
"Lung-ch.uan-yao, oder Altes Seladon-Porzel-Ian," Adolf Bernard Meyer. Berlin, 1889. A Catalogue of Blue and White Nankin Porcelain," by Sir Henry Thompson. London, 1878. (The Thompson Collection.) "Description and Historical Catalogue of a Collection of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Museum," by William Anderson, F.R.CS.
"Catalogue of Oriental Porcelain," Bethnal Green Museum, Sir A. Wollaston Franks. Second edition, 1878. (This collection is now in the British Museum.)
"A Sketch of the History of Ceramic Art in China," by E. Alfred Hippisley. Extract from the Report of the United States Museum for 1900, Washington, D. C. Reprinted 1902.
"Les Symboles et les Accessoires des Culte chez les Annamites," par G. Dumoutier, annales du Musee Guimet. Paris, 1891.
"Guide de l'Amateur de Porcelaines et de Fai-ences," Johann Georg Theodor Grasse. Dresden, 1894.
"Social Life of the Chinese," by the Rev. Justus Doolittle. London, 1868, Sampson Low, Marston & Co.
"Lettres Edifiantes et Curicuse des Missions Etrangeres," published by LAbbe de Quer-bceuf, Paris, last edition 1780-1783; the letters of Pere d'Entrecolles, written in 1 712 and 1722, are in Vols. 18 and 19.
The marks on porcelain are given in various editions of Chaffers, and will also be found in Hopper and Phillips's " Manual of Marks," and in Dr. J. G. Theodor Grasse's work (German Edition), "Abriss der Geschichte des Porzellans and der Thongefasse," Dresden.
DYNASTY OF THE MING CHINESE PERIODS
Tide of Reign. or Nien.hao Datc d Acomoioo Tile of Reign. or Nieo.hoo Date of Accomboo
Hung-wu ................... 1368 A of Ch'eng-hua . 1465
Chien-wen 1399 tra Hung-chih . 1488
71( A Yung-lo ....................... 1403 E M Cheng-te ................. 1506
a
B Hung-hsi ....................... 1425 A-: •ki. Chia-thing 1522
ISI. it, Hslian-te ...................... 1426 a * Lung-Ch'ing or -chlen 1567
E, a ch8no•ung 1436 A a Wan-li ........................ 1573
Ching-tai ................... 1450 $ 121 Tai-ckiang . 1620
X JIN Tien-shun ................... 1457 X -4 Tien-chl ........................ 1621
Ch'ung-chen . 1628
DYNASTY OF THE TS'1NG
Tide of Reigo. or Nien-heo Date of Accession Tide d Reign. or Nien-han Date ol Accmioo
Ka MI Shun-chih .................... 1644 gic M Chia-ch'ing . . 1796
le, K'ang-hsi ................... 1662 La yt Tao-kouang . . 1821
- Yung-cheng 1723 ja1.1 Hsien-feng .
. 1851
1 Chien-lung . . 1736 FA it Tung-chih .
. 1862
It a Kuang-hsii . . . . 1875
Bless you-ty-Do you mind if I clarify some things?